Willard Libby Biography / information / Dating methods (2022)

    Dear, Children, 
              A most heart welcome ! We are happy to place this post. In this post begins with the most fundamental introductions, and the features are then introduced steadily. The language used is simple and to the point. One is the beginning and foundation of education, The skills of observation, thinking and analysis are important for learning this post well. Keep using and refining them.  The students are never to be put under pressure to perform as per laid - down norms. The journey from class to class should be an enjoyable one. Students should be eager to progress from one level to the next. They should be presented with a variety of exercises and diverse activities. These will motivate them to move forward and develop within them the desire to excel. They will thus come up to the standards required in a natural, comfortable manner.

Learning Outcome : To improve observation skills.

Willard Libby

            It is possible to decide the age of ancient objects up to 60,000 years old with the help of the Carbon - 14 method. This method was invented by the scientist, Willard Libby.

Dating methods : Carbon - 14 is a radioactive element that is found in the bodies of all living organisms. After the death of an organism, the Carbon - 14 in the body begins to decrease. When pieces of wood, charcoal, bones, fossils, etc. from the prehistoric period are found, it is possible to measure the remaining C -14 in a laboratory. By measuring the remaining C-14 in the object, we learn how old that object is. This scientific method of determining the approximate age of an object is Known as the C -14 dating method. There are few other dating methods, but the C-14 dating method is the one most frequently used. Once the age of an ancient object is determined with the help of this and other dating methods, it is possible to determine the period of the culture to which these objects belonged. Then it can be places on the unilinear timeline.

           As the tree grows in height, the trunk also grows in girth. A new ring appears for every year of the growth of the girth. The rings can be seen when the tree is cut. If we count the rings, we come to know the age of the tree. This can also be used to determine the age of a wooden artefact. This method is knows as the Tree - ring method. 

       In October 1945 Libby became professor of chemistry in the Department of Chemistry and Institute for Nuclear Studies (now the Enrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies) at the University of Chicago (1945 - 1959). At age thirty - six he became the youngest full professor the 1960 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his method to use carbon -14 for age determination in archeology, geology, geophysics,.

          Willard Libby he was an American Physical chemist noted for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating, a process which revolutionized archaeology and paleontology. For his contributions to the team that developed this process, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960. A 1931 Chemistry graduate of the University of  California, Berkeley, from which he received his doctorate in 1933, he studied radioactive elements and developed sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity. During World War  II he worked in the Manhattan Project's Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories at Columbia University, developing the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment. 

        Libby is a Physical Chemist, and specialist in radiochemistry, particularly hot atom chemistry, tracer techniques, and isotope tracer work. He became well-known at University of Chicago for his work on natural carbon-14 (radiocarbon) and its use in dating archaeological artifacts, and natural tritium, and its use in hydrology and geophysics. Besides the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1960, he received other distinctions, including the Research Corporation Award for 1951 for the radiocarbon dating technique; the Chandler Medal of Columbia University for outstanding achievement in the field of chemistry (1954) the American Chemical Society Award for Nuclear Applications in Chemistry (1956); the Elliott Cresson Medal of the Franklin Institute (1957); the American Chemical Society's Willard Gibbs Medal Award (1958); the Albert Einstein Medal Award (1959); the Day Medal of the Geological Society of America (1961).

          Libby soon became deeply involved in the problem of nuclear fallout. In 1953, on the recommendation of the Rand Corporation of Santa Monica, California, he established and directed Project Sunshine to study the worldwide effect of nuclear weapons. He was the first person to measure nuclear fallout in dust, soil , rain, human bone, and other sources, and he wrote articles and testified before the U.S. Congress on this problem. He stated that all human beings are exposed to some fallout of natural radiation that all human beings are expend to some fallout of natural radiation from sources such as drinking water and claimed  that the combination of the body's natural radioactivity, cosmic radiation, and natural radiation of the earth's surface was more hazardous than the fallout resulting from nuclear testing. Along with most scientists at the time, he believed that the effect of nuclear fallout on human genetics was minimal. It alter became know that testing of nuclear weapons resulted in a large global increase in the carbon - 14 levels in the atmosphere, which decreased exponentially after the cessation of atmospheric testing in 1963.

    Libby accepted professorship at the University of Chicago's Institute for Nuclear Studies, where he developed the technique for dating organic compounds using carbon - 14. He also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water, and therefore wine. In 1950, he became a member of the General Advisory Committee (GAC) of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). He was appointed a commissioner in 1954, becoming its sole scientist. He sided with Edward Teller on  pursuing a crash program  to develop the hydrogen bomb, participated in the Atoms for Peace program, and defended the administration's  atmospheric nuclear testing. Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 to become Professor of Chemistry at University of California, Los Angeles  (UCLA), a position he held until his retirement in 1976. In 1962, he become the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP).     

         He attended grammar and high school near Sebastopol, California, between 1913 and 1926, moving to the University of California at Berkeley in 1927, where he studied till 1933, taking his B.Sc. and PH.D. degrees in 1931 and 1933 respectively. He was appointed Instructor in the Department of Chemistry at California University (Berkeley) in 1933 and during the next ten years was promoted successively to Assistant and then Associate Professor of Chemistry. He was awarded a Guggenheim  Memorial Foundation Fellowship in 1941 and elected to work at Princeton University, but on 8th December, 1941, this Fellowship was interrupted for war work on America's entry into World War II, and Libby went to Columbia University on the Manhattan District Project, on leave from the Department of Chemistry, California University, till 1945. At the end of the war, in 1945, Libby accepted the post of Professor of Chemistry in the Department of Chemistry and Institute for Nuclear Studies (now the Enrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies) of University of Chicago, remaining there till his appointment by President Eisenhower on 1st October, 1954, as a member of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.

           This appointment was renewed by the President for a further five-year term on 19th June, 1956, but Libby resigned from it on 39th June, 1959, to become Professor of Chemistry in the University of California at Los Angeles, being appointed Director of the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics on 1st January, 1962. On March 4, 1947, Libby and his students obtained the first age determinations suing the carbon-14 dating technique. He also dated linen wrappings from the Dead sea Scrolls, bread from Pompeii buried in the eruption of Vesuvius (AD 79), charcoal from a Stonehenge campsite, and corncobs from a New Mexico cave, and he showed that the last North American ice age ended about 10,000 years ago, not 25,000 years ago as previously believed by geologists.

Dendrochronology :  Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed. As well as dating them, this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and  atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from wood. Dendrochronology derives from Ancient Greek dendron, meaning "tree", Krono's, meaning "time", and  - logia "the study of".  Dendrochronology is useful for determining the precise age of samples, especially those that are too recent for radiocarbon dating, which always produces a range rather than an exact date. However, for a precise date of the death of the tree a full sample to the edge is needed, Which most trimmed timber will not provide. It also gives date on the timing of events and rates of changes in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art architecture, and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings. It is also used as a check in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages.

          New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark. A tree's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring , marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree's life.  Dendrochronology has become important to art historians in the dating of panel paintings. In addition to dating, dendrochronology can also provide information as to the source of the panel. Many Early Netherlandish paintings have turned out to be painted on panels of "Baltic oak" shipped from the Vistula region via ports of the Hanseatic League.  Since panels of seasoned wood were used, an uncertain number of years has to be allowed for seasoning when estimating dates. Panels were trimmed of the outer rings, and often each panel only uses a small part of the radius of the trunk. Consequently, dating studies usually result in a "terminus post qualm" (earliest possible) date, and a tentative date for the arrival of a seasoned raw panel using assumptions as to these factors. 

          Queen of Scots in the National Portrait Gallery, London was believed to be an eighteenth - century copy. However, dendrochronology revealed that the wood dated from the second half of the sixteenth century. It is now regarded as an original sixteenth - century painting by an unknown artist. The sixteenth century saw a gradual replacement of wooden panels by canvas as the support for paintings, which means the technique is less often applicable to later paintings. In addition, many panel paintings were transferred onto canvas or other support during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. 

        We hope that the Article will receive a warm welcome from students, readers, and parents. Enjoy reading.

Agriculture [2022]

      Many events occur in your surroundings. You are a part of the environment where Nature keeps meeting you in the form of sunlight, rain, and cold. You feel happy when a light, pleasant breeze touches you. Geography is a subject that offers explanations of all these natural events. It takes you closer to Nature. 

                                                        Wish You all the Best !

Agriculture 

       Agriculture is a comprehensive term. It includes farming and many allied occupations. Animals husbandry, dairy farming, pisciculture, sericulture, nursery, etc. come under the scope of the term agriculture.

         A farmer keeps hens, sheep, goats and cattle.  He gets milk, eggs, etc. from them. He sells hens, goats to earn money. He does all this for his subsistence. All these occupations depend on natural factors. All these fall under agriculture. These occupations are supplementary to the cultivation of crops. Agriculture has a wide scope. For our basic needs of food and clothing we make use of plants and animals, Besides the cultivation of different crops, rearing cattle, sheep and goats, maintaining poultry farms, keeping bees, sericulture, horticulture, orchard , pisciculture, pig farming, emu farming, etc. are included in agriculture. In agricultural occupation, resources like manpower, animals, implements, etc. are used. Advanced technology is employed. In agriculture, cultivation of crops is considered to be the main and the most important occupation.

          We see the changes in agricultural practices. In the past, primitive man had to wander in the forest to sustain himself on the collected forest produce. Later he learnt the art of cultivation and started getting greater production from the land. Through this, he could provide for the whole year's need for food grains. He also started obtaining a number of products through floriculture, horticulture, rearing animals, pisciculture, etc. Abandoning nomadic life, he undertook different occupations related to agriculture at the same place.

           Now let us get introduced to the different occupations that come under the scope of agriculture. We see the products of these occupations in our everyday life. These traditional occupations are allied activities in agriculture. 

Animal Husbandry : Rearing different animals and obtaining various products from them for subsistence is the core of animals husbandry.

Mixed Farming : 

    A Type of farming. This type of agriculture has a wide scope. It includes the farming and allied occupations like dairy, poultry etc. This term is also used for inter - cropping. Allocation of land for different crop in a season is also considered to be a form of mixed farming.

Dairy Farming 

  Cows, oxen, buffaloes, etc. are reared for agriculture related work. Rearing milk animals and animals which can be employed in farming is also an occupation. It is considered to be an inseparable part of mixed farming. It has become quite commercial in recent times. In India, it has started changing recently. Commercial dairy farming is mainly undertaken for meat and milk.

 

 

Sheep and goat rearing 

      This is also a traditional occupation. That is generally carried out in hilly tracts and semiarid regions with dry climate. Sheep and goats survive on short grasses, shrubs and acacia which grow in remote hilly rural areas away from urban settlements. In India, it is mainly undertaken for meat. Sheep rearing is carried out to obtain wool.

Poultry 

   Keeping hens and other fowl is a common practice in all parts of the world. It is a traditional occupation. Today, it is carried out as a household occupation and also on a commercial basis. Running a poultry on a commercial basis requires a lot of care. For this, scientific methods are employed. In India, this occupation is generally located in the areas close to big cities as they provide a ready market for this occupation. In some areas, rabbit, pig and emu rearing is also undertaken.

Beekeeping 

      This occupation is undertaken to obtain honey and wax. Bees, in order to collect honey, hover around the plants that bear flowers. This promotes the process of pollination. As a result, the tress bear large numbers of fruits and the crop yields increase. Bee keeping id an important occupation with respect to agriculture.

Pisciculture (Fish Farming) : Farm ponds are dug out for this purpose. Water is stored in such ponds. Fish seeds are released in the ponds. For this, seeds of freshwater species are used. In order to achieve the best growth of fish, scientific methods are employed.  Fishing in open seas has a number of risk factors. Different types of fish and other aquatic organisms get caught in the fishing nets. Separating them becomes a major task. All organisms do not fetch the same price. All these factors led to the rearing of specific type of fish species separately. Pisciculture developed out of these efforts. Warm, Roha, Raw as (Indian Neel ) , Kolanbi (Prawns), etc. are reared in fish farms.

Sericulture : Silk thread is obtained from the cocoon of the silk moth. These threads are very fine and strong and from these one can weave soft silk cloth. Getting silk thread form cocoons and manufacturing silk cloth are independent occupations. They are not included in agriculture. Different organizations supply silk moth eggs to the farmers. Leaves of mulberry tress are the main food for these silk worms. Once planted, the Mulberry trees survive for a minimum period of 15 years hence, the expenditure of planting the trees ever year is saved.

Nursery : In the last few years, he area under floriculture, cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants and horticulture has increased. These plantation require a high standard of seedlings, cutting , bulbs and seeds. This has led to the development of nurseries. Nurseries give good returns.

Do You Know ?

Greenhouse Farming 

     Greenhouse farming facilitates getting maximum product from the land. It can have a total control on natural factors like climate, heat, atmospheric moisture as well as soil moisture It assists in getting maximum economic benefits. Greenhouse farming is highly specialized type of farming of the modern era. For erecting a green house galvanized iron pipes and plastic sheets are used. Its main aim is to control the pest attack by controlling water, light and temperature. Green houses are used on larger scales for growing flowers like lily and gerbera to give maximum economic returns.

Greenhouse 

    This is a house constructed using sophisticated technology for the growing of vegetables and flowers. The walls and roof of this houses are made up of transparent materials - mostly glass. Conditions conducive for the growth of plants are controlled under such structures. The temperature inside the greenhouse is considerable higher than the temperature outside during the day. With the help of various instruments the temperature, relative humidity, air pressure etc. are controlled in greenhouses.

Types of Farming 

      Different types of agriculture have evolved due to geographical and cultural diversity, and technological differences in different regions. The type of farming depends upon the purpose and aims of methods of farming, the crops being cultivated, the techniques used, land use etc. Broadly, the following types of agriculture can be identified.

Subsistence Farming : Intensive farming and shifting cultivation are the two types in traditional farming. Intensive farming is carried out in one and the same farm for years together. In shifting cultivation, every year a new area is chosen for cultivation. After a specific period of time, old areas are again used for cultivation.

Intensive Farming Getting maximum production from a minimum area is the characteristic of intensive farming.

• Due to large population or limited availability of land, per head holding is small.
• This type of farming is mostly seen in developing regions.
• Farm production is sufficient only for the requirement of the family.
• In this type of farming, the cultivator and his family are totally dependent on faming. As farm production is low, the economic condition of the cultivator is also poor.
• In this type of farming mostly animate energy is used. 
• Besides the cereals, vegetables are also grown to some extent.

Shifting Cultivation : Shifting cultivation is a primitive type of cultivation. This type of cultivation is practiced in the tropics in densely forested areas or hilly tracts. The farmer initially selects a piece of land in the forest. In order to make it cultivable, he clears the land by cutting down the trees, plants, removing the shrubs and grass. Once the cut trees dry out, he burns them. The left over ash gets mixed in the soil and acts as manure. Sowing and harvesting is done before the rainy season . The production obtained from this is not sufficient to fulfil the food requirement. Hence people undertake hunting, fishing and gathering of bulbs and roots from forests. In this type of farming the fallow period is longer than the crop period. After the productivity of the land depletes in two to three years, a different piece of land is selected for cultivation.

Commercial Farming : Extensive grain farming and plantation agriculture are the two major types covered under commercial farming.

Extensive Grain Farming: 

• Farm size is greater than 200 hectares. 
• Due to large farm size and sparse population in the region, this type of farming is carried out with the help of machines like tractors and crushers. Pesticides are sprayed with the help of helicopters or planes. 
• Monocrop (a single crop) cultivation is the striking characteristic of this type of farming. The crops are wheat or corn. Besides these, barley, oats, soyabean are also cultivated to some extent.
• Heavy capital investment is necessary for this type of farming. Since huge expenditures are needed for the purchase of machinery, fertilizers pesticides, go downs, transport cost etc. 
• The problems in extensive grain farming are droughts, attack by pests, locusts, etc. and market fluctuations. 
• This type of farming is carried out in the temperate grassland regions.

Plantation Farming :

• Farm size in plantation agriculture is 40 hectares or above.
• As plantation agriculture is practiced in hilly tracts, use of machines is not possible, and hence local manpower becomes important.
• The crop for which the geographical conditions are favorable is planted. This is a single crop-cultivation practice too. This type of agriculture dies not produce food grains. Only commercial crop like tea, rubber, coffee, coconut, cocoa, spices, etc. are planted.
• Climate, manpower, deterioration of environment, economic and managerial problems are the major issues faced by this type of agriculture. 
• This type of agriculture is practiced in India and other South Asian countries, Africa, South and Central America, etc.

Market Gardening :

           Market gardening is a type of cultivation developed in modern times. This has developed mainly as a result of urbanization and the ready markets available in urban centers. Farmers cultivate vegetables and other item in the vicinity of urban centers to cater to the demands of city dwellers. This type of cultivation works on a principle of economics - demand and supply. The landholding is small. Use of irrigation, organic and chemical fertilizers, low investment, use of manpower, demand of markets, use of science and technology etc. are the characteristics of market gardening. It is dependent on good transport network. The quality and price of the product is determined by rapid transport. Hence, this type of farming is also known as 'truck farming'.

Horticulture / Floriculture :     

    Cultivation of flowers and fruits is a subtype of market gardening. Fruits and  flowers are the major products of this type of farming. In this type of farming modern as well as traditional methods are used. The size of farm is small and every plant is cared for properly. In recent times, use of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, green houses etc. is being made for getting more profit . Major products of horticulture are flowers like lily, gerbera, tulip, dahlia, chrysanthemum, marigold, etc. These fetch a good price in market. Different native and exotic fruits like mangoes, custard apples, grapes, bananas, pomegranates, dragon fruits, cherries, oranges, raspberries, strawberries mulberries etc. are cultivated in fruit farming  at places like Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Pune, Nagpur, Jalgaon, Nashik etc. Countries having Mediterranean climate, France and Italy are famous for horticulture.

Do You Know ?

Organic farming : The nutrient requirements of the crops is fulfilled y soil and therefore, replenishment of used up nutrients is necessary. Nutrients are also used abundantly to increase the yield Organic fertilizers are prepared for this purpose.

• The litter should be decomposed in the ground.
• Grasses like Sesani or jute are also buried in the soil for making manures.
• Cowdung and compost manures are used.
• Vermicomposting is obtained from organic waste. 

         When farming is done using all vestal matter mixed in the soil it is called organic farming. For controlling pests, organic pesticide like neem can be used. The crop obtained from organic farming is high in quality. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are not used in such a type of farming.

Agritourism : Agritourism is a new field in tourism. In the tropics, various types of agricultural products are cultivated. Hence there is greater scope for agritourism. In agrarian countries the rural life, local customs and culture are utilized for agritourism . City dwellers are curious about the farmer's life and environment. Many of them visit rural areas just to see this. Agritourism is financially beneficial for the farmer and his village. 

Geographical explanation : After the discussion, you may have realized that those fruits and vegetable that look fresh and attractive may not have been ripened using proper methods. At times, in order to get the produce earlier, artificial chemicals, pesticides. Are employed profusely. These facilitate quicker production and the produce appears fresh and attractive. However, such products are harmful to health. Also they do not last long after purchase.

Marketing Management : The Finished products produced by the producers have to reach market in order to be available to the consumers, clients, partners and the entire society. All the processes involved in taking the finished products from the production areas to the markets are covered under the term marketing managements. Marketing is useful for generating clients, maintaining and satisfying them.

Marketing Systems : Marketing Systems are necessary for making the goods produced by the farmers available to the consumer at a fair price and in time. The importance of marketing system in countries. like India will become clear from the following points.

• Agriculture in India is scattered over vast areas. 
• All farmers are not organized..
• Most of the farmers are economically weak and cannot market their production on their own. That is why, the system of Agricultural Produce Market Committees is established at the taluka level. At these places, farmers bring their produce and sell to the traders. 
• 
  As farm produce is perishable, there has to be a proper arrangement for its sale. Institutes like farmer's organizations, consumer societies, etc. help in this task and try to protect farmers from the exploitation by agents, mediators and others,  Some of the farm produce is directly used by industries as raw material. International markets are now becoming easily available for fam produce due to globalization. Many progressive farmers are using the modern technology in their farms. Also, they sell the produce with proper packaging. Hotels and malls also require agricultural produce on a large scale, By advertising on the internet, their products get sold in local as well as international markets.

Human Settlements

Resources : The materials and energies available in nature and the assets created by man and used for  making human life easier and more comfortable are called resources. All the constituents in nature that are used by man are resources.

Geographical Explanation : Human settlements flourished at places with favorable geographic conditions -- such as availability of water, a conducive climate, fertile land etc. In the early settlements, the occupations of the people were dependent on the locally available natural resources. This gave rise to separate settlements of people engaged in a particular occupation. For example, people along the sea coast are engaged in fishing. Their settlements became fishing hamlets (Koliwada). Forest dwellers or tribal people use forest produce for their livelihood. They live in forest areas in 'tribal hamlets' (Adivasi padas). Agriculture is practiced in fertile areas. Farmer families build their houses in or near their fields. These settlements gradually grow bigger. The settlements where the original occupations of the majority of the people are based on natural resources are called rural settlements. Agriculture. Fishery, etc. are some of these occupations.

              With the passage of time, other associated occupations also develop gradually in these rural settlement. As a result, people from surrounding areas migrate and settle there leading to an increase in the rural population. Houses are built and different facilities are developed for the growing population. Importance of secondary and tertiary occupations increases, the proportion of people engaged in primary occupations declines. This process leads to the transformation of rural settlement into urban settlements. Due to religious, historical, commercial, educational, and administrative reasons and also due to tourism, the original settlement, may transform into an urban one. If the population and the necessary amenities increase on a large scale the urban areas grow into metropolitan cities.

        After considering various settlements, we realize that people settle down in different geographical conditions and adopt themselves to the conditions in the region. Patterns of human settlements evolve in accordance with the naturel conditions. We are goin to study the major patterns of human settlements and the reasons behind them. Using the resources from the surroundings, man constructed houses and stated living in them. In the modern era of science and technology, people have made a remarkable progress in the construction of shelter. They have even built sky-scrapers. Man is thinking of constructing colonies on other planets and their satellites, too, in future.

        Settlements, have provided man with stability. Rural settlement is the first step towards a stable life in human history. Urban settlements have evolved through the expansion and growth of rural settlements. A certain way of life is preserved in rural settlements. Increase in the population of rural settlements is the beginning of urbanization. Life in urban settlements is more dynamic. There are large scale economic correlations between rural and urban settlements. The day-to-day food requirement of the urban population is fulfilled by rural settlements. Modernization, science and technology lead to transformation in both types of settlements.

Scattered settlements : In scattered settlements, houses are few and far from each other. Generally, such settlements are found in the areas of high relief, dense forests, grasslands, hot deserts, and extensive agricultural lands. 

Linear settlement : If the growth of settlement has taken place with respect to a linear element, the houses in such a settlement also appears to have been arranged in a linear manner. Settlements with such patterns are called linear settlements. Such settlements are found along roads, canals, rivers or sea coast.

Nucleated Settlements : These settlements are generally close to water sources like brooks, rivulets, rivers, lakes, reservoirs etc. In the deserts of Rajasthan we find nucleated settlements near assured sources of water. Fertile plains, transport hubs and mining centers, commercial centers often lead to the developments of this type of settlement. Besides these reasons, defense, health, education, and other social and religious factors can also give rise to nucleated factors can also give rise to nucleated settlements. The pattern of settlements mostly depends on geographical factors. If the buildings / houses are concentrated around a specific point in a  settlement such a settlement is called nucleated settlement. There can be different reasons for such a concentration. The most important is the source of water. Defense . protection is also one of the reasons for the settlement get nucleated.

       The pattern of settlements mostly depends on geographical factors. If the buildings / houses are concentrated around a specific point in a settlement such a settlements is called nucleated settlements. There can be different reasons for such a concentration. The most important is the source of water. Defense / protection is also one of the reasons for the settlement to get nucleated.

Linear Settlements :  Linear Settlements are along roads, railways, rivers, sea coasts and in city and villages. If the growth of settlement has taken place with respect to a linear element, the houses in such a settlement also appear to have been arranged in a linear manner. Settlements with such patterns are called linear settlements. Such settlements are found along roads, canals, rivers or sea coast.

Tourism : A service occupation. Various services needed by the tourists in a region are provided as a part of this. These include lodging facilities, hospitality, transport, communication, etc. as also maintenance of tourist places. 

Agro - tourism : In this form of tourism, the most important aspect s to obtain the information about agricultural activities by actually visiting a farm or a meadow. People are curious about knowing how the food. they consume is produced. It is out of this curiosity that agro - tourism has developed. It is the first experience for most visitors especially for youngsters. For a few decades, agro - tourism has become popular in India. Agro - tourism Development Corporation works for the spread of this form of tourism. By 2014, around 214 centers for agro - tourism in rural settlements have been started in Maharashtra.

Agriculture

Agricultural Seasons : We get food from plants. For that purpose, we sow grains in fields and plant fruit trees in orchards. About 60% of the land of our country is in use for agriculture. There are two main agricultural seasons in our country. The season from June to October is called the Kharif season. In this season, the crops are watered mainly by the rain. The season from October to March is the rabi season. In this season, rainwater that has soaked into the soil, the retreating monsoons and dew are the sources of water for the crops. In addition, some crops are grown from March t June. These are called summer crops.

Agricultural Work : Every farmer wishes to get a good harvest. A god harvest provides a good income. Fertile land, good quality seeds and fertilizers. and availability of water are essential for a good harvest. Ii is also necessary to carry out the tasks of tilling the land. The crop in the field must be protected and the harvested crop must also be stored safely. All of these processes are important. The population of our country is increasing, and still the needs of all the people are being met. This has been possible because of modern improved methods of agriculture.

Traditional Agriculture : In the traditional methods of agriculture, ploughing, tilling, etc. were done with the help of oxen, A 'met' (a huge leather bag) driven with the help of oxen was used to  draw water from the well. Harvesting. threshing, etc. was done by the members of the farmer's family themselves with the help of oxen. However, farmers now carry out all these tasks with the help of machines.

Improved methods of Agriculture :

Improved seeds : Earlier it was customary to preserve the seeds of one harvest for sowing in the next season. Those seeds did not have a high yield. Nowadays, improved seeds are developed through research. They are available in the market for every crop such as jowar, rice, groundnut, wheat, etc. These have a higher yield. They can resist pest attacks. Some varieties become ripe for harvesting in a shorter period of time while some give a high yield even with a low water supply.

Modern Methods of irrigation: Crops grow well if they are watered at the right time. Water from rivers, lakes and wells is used for irrigation in addition to rainwater. Greater quantities of water are stored by building dams and bunds on rivers to obstruct the flow of water down- stream.  This also helps to raise the levels of groundwater. Crops were traditionally watered through canals. However, much water from the canals is lost due to evaporation and seepage into the ground. Now, certain improved methods of irrigation are used which provide enough water to the plants and at the same time, help to save a lot of water. Drip irrigation and sprinkle irrigation are two of these modern methods.

Sprinkle irrigation : The drip irrigation method makes use of pipes with holes. This ensures that the required amount of water drips only near the plants. Thus, full use is made of the available water. Sprinkle irrigation makes use of sprinklers of different sizes that spray water directly on plants.

Fertilizers : If the same crops are grown repeatedly in a field, the fertility of the soil decreases. Then we have to add fertilizers to the soil to restore its productivity. Fertilizers provide the required nutritive substances to the crop. There are two kinds of fertilizers, natural and chemical. Natural fertilizers are called manures. They are obtained from materials available in nature like green waste and animal dung. Chemical or artificial fertilizers are mixtures of different chemical substance in specific proportions, useful for agriculture, In traditional agriculture, organic manures such as compost were used. Chemical fertilizers came to be used for quicker growth and higher yields. However, the harmful effects of the use of these fertilizers soon became clear. The overuse of chemical fertilizers leads to accumulation of excessive chemicals in the soil. This lowers the fertility of the soil and reduces its productivity. Overwatering makes the land saline and fallow. This is seen especially in the parts where water is available in plenty, as for example, near dams or on river banks. If land becomes saline and fallow, it has to be tested to find out which substances it lacks. The fertility can be restored by adding these substances. It is a costly and time- consuming procedure. Therefore, it is better to avoid excessive use of fertilizers and water.

Protection of crops : Diseases and pest attacks can damage crops in the fields. As a remedy, insecticides and pesticides are sprayed on crops or certain chemicals are rubbed on the seeds before sowing.

Storage of grain : Storing the harvested crop safely is as important as increasing the production. What steps are take for this purpose ?

       The grain is dried well in the sun and filled in sacks. The sacks are then stocked in the house or, after selling, in warehouses or shops. Stored grain can get damaged in two ways. Mice, rats and insects can spoil the grain to a great extent. Also, if the grain is stored in a closed and damp space, it catches fungus and becomes unfit for eating. To prevent such damage by pests, chemicals are sprayed at the place of storage or all around it. Need leaves are mixed in the grain. Some protective chemicals that can be mixed with the grain are also available in the market, Their smell repels insects. Storage places are always kept dry and airy to prevent fungus formation.

Food Storage and conservation of environment : Like humans, other living things also store food. Each of them has a different way of doing it. Insects like ants store food. Bees collect nectar from flowers and store it in a honeycomb, in the form of honey. Squirrels store seeds. Because these animals store food, it is available to them when they need it. All the time, plants are busy producing the food they need. Even so, there are some plants that store food. You are familiar with bulbs of plans such as onions and garlic, and tubers such as potatoes, ginger, etc. They are all  parts of the stem of the plants. Radishes, sweet potatoes, beetroots are the roots of their plants. These plants store food in their stems or roots. We, too, store food in our homes according to our needs. In India, due to the improved methods of cultivation, wen now produce plenty of food grains. The production exceeds the demand. The surplus food grain is stored in huge warehouses. Sometimes, production is affected by a disaster such as floods, drought, a cyclone or hailstorm. At such times, the stored surplus grain can be used for the people. It can also be used for people displaced due to disasters like an earthquake.

The Green Revolution : Today our country is self - reliant as far as production of food grains is concerned. We are also able to export the surplus grains. The tremendous increase in food grain production in our country was achieved during the 'Green Revolution'. It was brought about by the joint efforts of scientists, people working for the spread of science and farmers. The credit for the research that led to improvement in the seeds of wheat and rice that resulted in the Green Revolution in India goes to Dr M. S. Swaminathan. 

Food Security : Food is a basic need. Many countries have made laws to ensure that every person gets sufficient food according to their need. These laws are knows as food Security laws. In 2013, our country too enacted a food Security Law. It has made it possible to fight ills like malnutrition, starvation and deaths due hunger.

Agricultural Assistance Programmed : Through this programmed, farmers are given proper information and guidance about the latest technology, irrigation facilities, improved seeds, use of fertilizers and pesticides, etc. They can also get weather forecasts and other agriculture related information from these assistance centers.

     In addition, agricultural schools have also been started for farmers. Members of a farmer's family can learn abut new technology at these schools. Agricultural Produce Marking Committees hold exhibitions too for farmers. The agricultural department of the government, agriculture universities, television, newspapers and various periodicals work for the spread of moderns methods of agriculture. Now, it is possible for all farmers to use these modern methods to increase production. The whole country benefits from these efforts.

     

Do You Know ? Organic Farming : Farming that relies on natural (organic) materials is called organic farming. It is a form of traditional agriculture. In this method, the nutritive substances in the soil are retained. The organic pesticides used in this method have no harmful effects on those who eat the produce. The grain grown by this method is nutritious and grown by this methods is nutritious and also good to the taste. That is why, farmers have begun to opt for organic farming methods. Organic faming involves use of manure obtained from plants and animals. These manures consist of fish and bone meal, animals excreta as well as decomposed remains of plants and animals.

We hope that this article will receive a warm welcome from students, and parents.